An annotated bibliography for an article written by Flanagan (1954)


Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 54, 4. Retrieved August 14th 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

In the article cited above, Flanagan (1954) provides a definition of a method utilized for collecting direct data of human behaviour called the critical incident technique (CIT). In doing so, the author describes the development of this methodology briefly since it started to be implemented during the World War II by the United States Army Air Forces. Then, a series of subsequent studies carried out by the University of Pittsburgh are presented. After that, the five steps involved in the critical incident procedure are discussed. To conclude, Flanagan (1954) provides a description of a large number of applications of such technique supported by illustrative examples and references that orient readers interested in pursuing future research.

Theory and practice integration through the use of critical incidents


If the critical incident technique is to be understood as “a set of procedures for collecting direct observations of human behavior in such a way to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 1), it is reasonable to value its application within the field of education. As Fernandez, Elórtegui and Medina (2003) point out “[t]he idea is to integrate theory and practice” (p. 101). Hence, reflecting on everyday classroom practices becomes an essential ability not only to achieve learning and teaching objectives successfully, but also to grow professionally.
As “pre-service teacher education strategies” (Fernandez, Elórtegui and Medina, 2003, p. 101), critical incidents prove to be effective sources of analysis for inexperienced, undergraduate teachers. While attending college, analyzing real classroom situations in the form of critical incidents turned to be a personal enriching experience. Beyond theoretical background, it was the reflection on other teachers’ observations that provided me with reliable, handy, pedagogical tools to face everyday classes. Hence, it seems to be particularly important to foster the implementation of critical incidents within the teaching field.
To conclude, considering critical incidents as in-service strategies (Fernandez, Elórtegui and Medina, 2003), they contribute to enhance teachers reflections upon their own practices. Personally, I delved into registering everyday classroom occurrences without knowing I was in fact writing critical incidents. They have become reliable, self-evaluation resources since, after reflecting on them, I can identify my weak and strong points. I must admit it turns to be a really hard work to see personal classroom performances from an objective perspective; however, such analysis proves to be really profitable. Struggling feelings of rejoicing and frustration; relief and anxiety; as well as encouragement and dismay arise every time I become an outsider observer of my own teaching practice.



References

Fernandez González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17 (1), 101-112. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved September 14th 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51 (4). Retrieved September 14th 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Delving into critiquing: A critical assessment for a book written by Brown (2000).


In his book “Principles of language learning and teaching”, not only has Brown (2000) displayed the complexity of the phenomenon of second language acquisition (SLA); he has also presented a storehouse of updated findings related to language learning and teaching. Considering issues chapter by chapter, accurate, theoretically supported definitions of key concepts are given first; going through a detailed discussion of the factors that may influence human learning; to conclude with an overall picture of theories of second language acquisition.
Especially noteworthy is the inclusion of end-of-chapter exercises that foster group or pair discussion, as well as individual analysis. Rather more significant are the journal-writing guidelines offered at the end of each chapter since they enhance the reader’s reflection on personal experiences when learning a foreign language. Equally remarkable are Brown’s (2000) suggestions for further reading related to each chapter’s topic allowing for extensive research.
Of greater concern is the provision of vignettes depicting the applications of second language studies and investigations to classroom realities. Such vignettes can be classified into two groups: those describing the historical progression of language teaching methods, and the ones dealing with related classroom implications of each chapter topic. Regarding the former group, they appear to be disseminated randomly within the first chapters. Thus, it turns to be a demanding task on the reader’s part to follow the thread of the evolution of language-teaching methodologies. It would have been better if Brown (2000) had introduced a spare section containing such vignettes arranged in a chronological order.
In this reliable book, solid, theoretical foundations for language-teaching education programs are provided. At the same time, this piece of work proves to be interesting for readers seeking for an overview of current issues in the field of second language acquisition. Despite not offering an organized chronology of the evolution of teaching methods, Brown (2000) succeeds in picturing effectively the changes in the views of the language-teaching process along history. To conclude, this book seems to be recommendable not only for graduate or undergraduate language teachers, but also for any person interested in enriching their knowledge of language acquisition.




























Reference

Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Reading-writing relationship in the first language: Three hypotheses.

Purpose: To state how reading and writing in the mother tongue relate to each other according to three different hypotheses.
Thesis: Reading becomes a meaningful source of input for the development of writing skills (Pintos, 2008).
Audience: First and second language teachers and students interested in comprehending the manner in which reading and writing complement each other.

I. First-language theories hypothesis for reading-writing relationship (Pintos, 2008).
A. “The directional hypothesis” (Pintos, 2008, p. 32)
1. Notion of input
2. Directional transference
B. “The non-directional hypothesis” (Pintos, 2008, p. 32)
1. Core cognitive processes
2. Either direction transference
C. “The bidirectional hypothesis” (Pintos, 2008, p. 32)
1. Interrelated processes (Pintos, 2008)
a. Literacy skills development
b. Quantitative changes



Reference
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Universidad CAECE. Retrieved August 14th 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

The critical incident technique: A sound method for identifying significant situations.



Gathering profitable information when researching in any area appears to be not a simple task. On the contrary, identifying significant events when the main objective is to solve everyday problems requires the implementation of a systematized series of action. Hence, the critical incident technique (CIT) methodology might be considered a reliable source for obtaining information since it involves a collection of people’s attitudes and manners when facing real-life situations (Flanagan, 1954). All these incidents may be of great significance, but it becomes crucial to define them properly so as to take advantage of their effectiveness.
First of all, it seems to be necessary to clarify what each of the terms used to name this method implies. An incident can be defined as any complete human action that not only is available to be observed and recorded but also allows drawing conclusions about the person’s reactions (Flanagan, 1954). When the observer is completely aware of its intentions and consequences, an incident is said to be critical. Last but not least, the word technique encompasses the moment-to-moment practices and behaviours that operate in gathering information according to certain criteria.
At this point, it would be appropriate to state that the critical incident technique is not to be thought as a “single rigid set of rules governing (…) data collection” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 9); rather, it should be understood as a way of action that can be modified to suit different circumstances. If it were not like that, it would be impossible to cater for the observation requirements of such a variety of areas where this method is widely used. However, what comes to be a common core concept is the idea of objectivity when reporting a situation. A judgment is considered objective when separate or unconnected observers tend to report identical occurrences. Thus, clarity in the description of the task requirements and observers’ competence turn to be decisive.
When working with the critical incident technique, establishing a general aim becomes a basic condition. In doing so, not only authorities but also participants should work collaboratively to specify what is necessary to do to fulfill the task successfully. In other words, designing a general aim relates to expressing objectives by means of an understandable and simple statement. On the surface, it seems to be an easy task to achieve; however, Flanagan (1954) outlined three desirable steps for obtaining a general aim. First, an introductory phrase addressing participants is pertinent; secondly, a request asking for what they consider the fundamental purpose of the activity would be is to be included; lastly, a summary of what has been stated in the second step is required.
Concerning with observers’ capacity to handle the activity, it is precise to instruct them specifically with respect to evaluation and classification of the obtained information. Furthermore, it is crucial that those who are in charge of fulfilling the task know deeply about the characteristics of the group they are to observe. In other words, a certain degree of personal qualifications and training in observation techniques is necessary.
According to Flanagan (1954), there are four components that need clarification before collecting usual occurrences in the form of critical incidents. To start with, the limits of the situation to be observed must be fixed. Then, a decision must be taken regarding the effect of a specific behaviour on the general aim. Afterwards, it is necessary to decide if such effect is either positive or negative. Finally, those who are to collect the data must be chosen carefully paying special attention to their level of knowledge regarding the activity; moreover, observers should receive specific training so as to accomplish the task satisfactorily.
After proper specifications have been developed, another critical issue arises: how to obtain a profitable critical incident report. As Flanagan (1954) points out, there appear to be four appropriate procedures. Individual interviews can be described as the means by which observers are precisely trained on efficient ways of focusing on adequate information and providing accurate incidents. Similarly, group interviews deserve being mentioned. They do not differ much from the previous procedure except for being held among certain number of people; thus providing opportunities for exchanging opinions and sharing points of view.
Bearing in mind the characteristics regarding group interviews, it is possible to state the appropriate application of this procedure in the educational field where exposing and analyzing experiences become crucial for enriching everyday classroom practices. Questionnaires also prove to be reliable procedures for gathering data. Observers are required to read instructions and answer attentively writing every detail they consider significant.
Once information has been collected, it is time for analyzing it. It is not a question of piling hundreds of critical incidents; rather, it is essential “to summarize and describe the data in an efficient manner so that it can be effectively used for many practical purposes” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 19). At this point, it becomes relevant to remind the reader critical incidents are mainly gathered with the purpose of making significant contributions to an activity or phenomenon of any kind; thus, the evaluation stage deserves cautious devotion.
The critical incident technique has spread as a method to identify job requirements, develop recommendations for effective practices, and determine competencies for a vast number of professionals in various disciplines. It seems to be desirable the application of this technique for measuring the typical performance of people engaged in a specific activity in terms of desirable behaviours (Flanagan, 1954). As well as this, it is possible to determine people’s proficiency in terms of attitudes and manners (Flanagan, 1954). Moreover, critical incidents may be useful for developing training programs aiming at preparing people for facing emergency or problematic situations (Flanagan, 1954). In addition, it is also possible to identify and select important job requirements (Flanagan, 1954). Regarding job design and purification, the critical incident technique proves real effectiveness since job elements identification favours personnel training on those aspects (Flanagan, 1954).
In the case of operating procedures, they can be really enhanced by applying this technique since real data collection provides a profitable source for analyzing successes and failures, “improving [in this way] the effectiveness and efficiency of operations” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 27). Turning to equipment design, gathering critical incidents allows for analyzing as well as modifying those aspects regarding workers’ interpretation of new equipment specifications. Similarly, collecting factual data has proved to be effective in the field of counseling and psychotherapy favouring the development of improvement objectives as well as the establishment of common procedures among therapists (Flanagan, 1954).
In the teaching field, it becomes crucial to check students’ understanding of instructions and tasks purposes. In addition, it is also possible to study students and teachers’ attitudes collecting real events. Hence, the critical incident technique “may be a very valuable supplementary tool for the study of attitudes” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 28). In other words, focusing on feelings, manners and reactions provides an ideal basis for enhancing motivation and detecting leadership behaviours within the classroom.
In summary, when deep analysis is needed for applying results to practical situations, the critical incident technique demonstrates to be a sound and reliable method since it allows the recording of real behaviours in everyday contexts. Vague opinions or simple interpretations of observers seem to be regardless at the moment of evaluating aptitudes, training or desirable attitudes associated to any activity. Hence, the possibility of reflecting through critical incidents becomes the basis for integrating theory and practice within any working field.




Reference

Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved August 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Steve Jobs (2005) addresses the graduates at Stanford University: A summary of his speech.

During a speech at Stanford University, Jobs (2005) presents three personal life stories. Jobs (2005) starts explaining the reasons why he quit college asserting that “it was one of the better decisions I’ve ever made” (Jobs, 2005).Afterwards, Jobs (2005) reveals he felt a failure when being dismissed from a company he had created. However, the love for his profession urged him to start again. Last but not least, the speaker reveals being diagnosed a pancreatic cancer led him to “live only what [was] truly important” (Jobs, 2005), and urges the graduates to follow their intuition and courage.












Reference

Steve Jobs’ 2005 Stanford commencement address [Video file]. (2005). Retrieved September 14, 2009 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UF8uR6Z6KLc

Delving into academic writing: A question of practice and reflection.

Writing academically is not just a question of combining sentences to create pieces of writing showing the mastery of grammar and vocabulary; rather, it should be understood as a means to construct knowledge (Pintos, 2008). As Myles (2002) claims “[a]cademic writing requires conscious effort and much practice in composing, developing, and analyzing ideas”(p. 1). Hence, competence in the use of quotations, omissions, insertions, introductory phrases, in-text citations as well as reporting verbs seems to be crucial at the moment of producing interesting, reliable and not plagiarized pieces of writing. In doing so, a combination of critical reflection along with exposition of own ideas appropriately supported becomes fundamental.
When referring to somebody else’s words or ideas, Myles (2002) makes illustrating uses of the aspects mentioned above. Regarding in-text citations, it is possible to identify direct quotes where the phrase referred to is presented between inverted commas, followed by the author’s name, the year of publication and the page number between brackets. Example of this is a phrase claiming that writing “should not be viewed solely as an individually-oriented, inner-directed cognitive process, but as much as an acquired response to the discourse conventions…within particular communities” (Swales, 2002; as cited in Myles, 2002, p. 3). Besides, the use of an omission in the preceding quoted passage is possible to be identified by the presence of three full stops within the original phrase.
Continuing with the analysis of in-text citations, a variety of introductory phrases can be recognized. As their definition indicates, they should include the source accompanied by the main idea. To illustrate this, the following examples may account sufficiently well “[t]he Flower and Hayes (1980, 1981) module focuses on …” (Myles, 2002, p. 2); “[a]ccording to Mc Laughlin (1988)…” (Myles, 2002, p. 7); or “[a]s Yau (1991) points out…” (Myles, 2002, p. 13). Furthermore, the use of letter insertions can be exemplified by quotations like “[L]earners lack the necessary information…” (Myles, 2002, p. 7) or “[A]lthough we should not cripple…” (Myles, 2002, p. 13). As well as this, it is possible to identify a wide range of paraphrased citations such as “those who have difficulty … to help them in their L2 writing development (Sasaki & Hirose, 1996)” (Myles, 2002, p. 4).
Last but not least, the variations within the use of reporting verbs contributes to make Myles’s (2002) article more academic; not only because they help to avoid structure and vocabulary repetitions, but also because they convey different meanings. Thus, verbs like mention, propose, advocate, point out, argue, stress, state or claim all preceded by the original author’s name and the year of publication between brackets are just a few examples of them. The author’s selection of precise words allows the reader to recognize differences regarding the objectivity of the idea that follows.
All in all, composing texts in academic contexts appears to involve an information transformation process where knowing about the topic to communicate is not enough. It becomes essential to know how to present ideas efficiently as well as support them properly following an academic style. In other words, language proficiency proves to be insufficient if not accompanied by the mastery of writing skills. As Myles (2002) points out “the process of writing in an academic environment is challenging” (p. 12), but not impossible to be handled. Acquiring the basic principles required to develop into effective academic writers turns to be a question of deliberate practice and constant reflection (Myles, 2002).




















References

Myles, J. (2002). Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts. TESEL-EJ, 6, 2, 2002. Queen’s University. Retrieved September 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730



Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 3: Academic writing. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Universidad CAECE. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Academic summary analysis: Reflecting on core aspects.

Broadly speaking, a summary could be defined as a concise description of the main points of any written or oral work (Reid, 1994; as cited in Pintos, 2008). However, summarizing is not as simple as it sounds to be, especially within academic fields. Core aspects such as audiences and purposes deserve special attention. Moreover, academic summaries should be structured following specific rules regarding text organization, i.e. the inclusion of an accurate introduction, a balanced body and an objective conclusion properly related to each other becomes essential. Hence, it is not just a question of identifying main ideas; rather, it is time to put paraphrasing and quoting techniques into practice as long as clear, neutral summaries are to be developed and plagiarism avoided.
After having analyzed an academic summary, it is possible to identify the use of a precise introductory phrase such as “[i]n he book The Process of Paragraph Writing, Reid (1994) describes (…)” (Pintos, 2008, p. 20) including the source, author and main idea. Furthermore, the inclusion of an appropriate second sentence clarifying the relevant characteristics of the idea presented before helps direct the reader towards a clear understanding of the topic being summarized. In addition, there is an accurate use of connectors that help the reader to identify the relation between ideas. For instance, “however” has been used with the purpose of expressing contrast; “moreover” to add new information; or, “that is to say” to clarify certain aspects that deserve being specified.
Regarding the structure of the summary mentioned above, the introduction and body can be clearly identified. On the contrary, the conclusion seems to be somehow confusing or not properly stated. That is to say, the absence of a specific connector or linking phrase showing the summary text is concluded leads the reader to think there is still something to be said. Hence, a sensation of incompleteness arises. In other words, the efficiency of an accurate introduction and a balanced body is hindered by the lack of a clear conclusion.
As stated before, two relevant issues need attentive devotion when sharing ideas with others: audiences and purposes. Considering the audience is someone who has not read a text depicting the role of academic writing in the field of professional growth before, and the purpose is to persuade that audience to read the rest of it, the three following single sentence summaries intend to be incentives to motivate readers to go through the whole text.
First of all, constructing knowledge should been seen as the major aim of writing within academic contexts. Secondly, writing academically requires the mastery of specific characteristics related to register, style, use of language, paraphrasing and quoting techniques, as well as types of genres. Lastly, contributing to society in academic settings demands the learning of specific, technical uses of the target language.
As the discussion above suggests, writing academic summaries is not just an act of making our voices heard without deliberation. On the contrary, careful thought must be given to understanding the ideas claimed by the author of the original text first. Then, audiences and purposes deserve special consideration. Once these last two aspects have been handled, time for organizing and elaborating the summary text arrives. All in all, to become effective and active participants of a community of teachers and researchers within an academic discourse context the requirements mentioned above should be met.



















Reference

Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 3: Academic writing. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Universidad CAECE. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

An attempt to define a discourse community

Many researchers and theorists, such as Bizzel (1986, 1992) Candlin (1997) Reid (1993) and Swales (1990), have defined a discourse community as a knowledge community formed by a group of people who operate on the basis of certain values, goals, expectations, and language practices. Moreover, to be recognized as such, a discourse community should meet a set of characteristics. According to Swales (1990; as cited in Pintos, 2009), these requirements are: common goals, participatory mechanisms, information exchange, community-specific genres, highly specialized terminology, and high general level of expertise. Therefore, if someone belongs to a discourse community, s/he should give testimony of such membership by meeting the mentioned aspects.

Regarding the first characteristic, it refers to the fact that the group should achieve certain objectives and have specific interests. Thus, considering teachers as part of a situated learning discourse community (Hoffman-Kipp et al, 2003) where they interact with colleagues in goal-directed activities, collaborating, strategizing solutions to problems, and relying on each other; it turns evident that what Swales (1990) states as one necessary characteristic, it is indeed.

It is possible to relate the ideas mentioned above with the second and third aspects proposed by Swales (1990). Accordingly, discourse members will not survive unless they are intercommunicated through mechanisms that facilitate the circulation of information and feedback. Wenzlaff -Terri et al (2004) state “interactions with the people in one’s environment are major determinants of both what is learned and how learning takes place” (p. 1). Furthermore, one of these authors’ core concepts is the idea of forming a cohort structure within education, defined as the one that “fosters a collaborative culture (…), enhances opportunities for influencing decision-making processes and for connecting personally and professionally with colleagues” ( Wenzlaff – Terri et al, 2004 p. 2).

Last but not least, the three remaining characteristics proposed by Swales (1990) are closely related to language practices and level of knowledge. Therefore, developing communicative competence becomes crucial since the group needs to acquire specific vocabulary and be aware of conventionalized style and language principles. Christine Kelly – Kleese (2004) argues that a community college can be understood as a discourse community within a larger community of higher education. In doing so, she makes reference to what Swales (1990) states in the last requirements by claiming that “members of two-year college discourse communities share understandings about how to communicate knowledge and achieve shared purposes, and they exhibit a flow of discourse that has a particular structure and style” (Kelly-Kleese, 2004 p. 2).

On balance then, belonging to a discourse community implies not only knowing about the specific language practices this community uses but also taking part in those practices. Thus, a discourse community cannot exist in the absence of a collaborative culture and an environment that supports risk-taking and reflection; being both essential if we are to be considered active members that contribute effectively to the development of a community of researcher teachers.

















References

Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A. J., & Lopez Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: teaching learning as praxis. Theory into Practice. Retrieved August 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730


Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved August 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Universidad CAECE. Retrieved August 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Wenzlaff, T. L., & Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers need teachers to grow. Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved August 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Succeeding in academic contexts: The required study skills.

Purpose: To provide an account of the study skills required for achieving English for Academic Purposes (EAP) goals satisfactorily (Jordan, 1997; as cited in Pintos, 2009).
Thesis: When reading, writing and listening for study purposes common core abilities, techniques, and strategies are used (Jordan, 1997; as cited in Pintos, 2009).
Audience: Teachers and students involved in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses.

I. Teaching English for Non Obvious Reasons (TENOR)
A. English for General Purposes (EGP)
II. English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
A. English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)
B. English for Vocational Purposes (EVP)
C. English for Professional Purposes (EPP)
D. English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
1. Definition
2. First recorded use of the term
3. Divisions
a. English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP)
b. English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP)
4. Range of settings
a. Higher education studies
b. Pre-departure courses
(1) Pre-sessional courses
(2) In-sessional courses
(3) Inclusions
(a) Formal teaching programs
(b) Self-access situations
(c) Distance-learning materials
(d) Computer-assisted language learning (CALL)


























Reference


Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Universidad CAECE. Retrieved August 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Professional development within the teaching field


Growing professionally in the area of teaching is commonly seen as a process of acquiring knowledge about a specific subject, without considering that the acquisition of social and academic skills is also crucial. It is well known that educating remains not only as a way of transmitting knowledge, but also a provision of a social service. In doing so, teachers are involved in varied school communities which have specific learning, psychological and physiological needs. Consequently, if educators are to meet those needs and progress in their own working field, being constant researchers becomes essential. Thus, reflection, updating, collaboration and exposure of results and conclusions seem to be desirable principles.
As stated before, most education representatives believe that professionalism is synonymous with knowledge acquisition. Not only teachers, but also governmental workers who are in charge of stating educational plans of action assume that developing professionally is a matter of displaying high levels of expertise and control in the classroom. Once these aspects are tackled, their combination results into students’ learning success.
Whenever a research is concluded, the results are to be published, so as to share them with the rest of the discourse community. In academic writing, there are certain words and phrases that help to develop ideas and relate them to one another: they are discourse markers. For instance, in the article High-Quality Teaching: Providing for Rural Teachers’ Development. The Rural Educator (Howley and Howley, 2005) it is possible to identify a huge number of them. Just to illustrate the function of some, “however”, “but”, “nevertheless” and “even though” are used to present contrasting ideas. “In addition”, “moreover” and “furthermore” add information to what has been said; thus, their usage is much more elegant than just making a list or using the conjunction “and”. As well as this, there are expressions such as “therefore” or “as a result” expressing that the second element follows logically from the first. “Such as” and “for example” appear to exemplify concepts or ideas. Last but not least, “first” and “second” help when listing is required.
Regarding professional development, there is an approach founded on data-based improvement that has taken as a guide some of the principles of management approaches to professionalism. Such approaches, regard management development as a formal process where managers are exposed to learning opportunities while doing their work. Within the educational field, teachers improve only if they are able to analyze the ongoing classroom life and standardize their conclusions.
To sum up, making progress in the teaching field implies not only quality of instruction but also autonomy and self-direction. What is more, taking the road of reflection and everyday practice reformulation are the major principles. Thus, “a profession is far more than a group of individuals who are all engaged in the same line of work” (Banfi, 1997, as cited in Pintos, 2009, p. 23).



References

Howley, A. & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-quality teaching: Providing for rural teachers’ professional development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved October 2007, from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361


Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Universidad CAECE. Retrieved August 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Effective readers develop into proficient writers

Within the academic discourse community, it is almost impossible to think about the development of writing without the aid of reading, and vice versa. Thus, engaging students into profitable reading activities would influence effectively on writing proficiency; in other words, the former skill becomes the source of the necessary input for achieving the latter successfully. According to Bloor (1985), there are four different ways of dealing with reading in academic contexts: psychological, linguistic, content-oriented and pedagogically- oriented approaches (Bloor, 1985; as cited in Jordan, 1997).
As regards the first of the approaches already mentioned, it is concerned with the processes that take place in the reader’s mind when involved in such activity (Jordan, 1997). The philosophy of this approach underlies exercises focusing on word recognition and interpretation. Reading activities of this kind could be those where students are asked to identify specific vocabulary first, and then give an account of what they have understood by means of producing their own pieces of writing.
Secondly, a linguistic approach focuses on the words and sentences of the text. It is believed that the reading ability will improve if learners are able to deal with linguistic aspects efficiently. In doing so, exercises focusing on grammar become essential. Examples of this are those reading tasks where students are to recognize, name and specify function and structure of distinctive grammatical issues included in the text. In academic contexts, activities where learners are supposed to identify and classify discourse markers, for instance.
Regarding the third approach, it is assumed that giving learners a specific purpose for reading will improve their efficiency. As well as this, if students read about areas of their own interest, they will be truly engaged. These two aspects lead us to think about tasks where readers are given a set of pre-reading questions about a text bearing relevance for them. For example, in the case of students attending an EAP course, reading papers, dissertations or books about discourse or academic language practices could be considered representative of the content-oriented principles.
Finally, a pedagogically-oriented approach is the one that places learning theories at the top of the scale in reading motivation. According to this view, students are supposed to work at their own rate by means of using self-access materials. A good example could be a course where the teacher presents a set of reading tasks based on different texts provided with answer key resources for students to assess their own progress.
All in all, reading proves to be a reliable source for acquiring language and strengthening students’ cognitive abilities; aspects that enable learners to construct their knowledge and produce meaningful writings within their discourse community. Consequently, developing interested and stimulated readers becomes the major aim.











Reference

Jordan, R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes – A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: CUP.